Integrating active, passive and offensive defense: a comparative study of Ukraine and Israel (2022-2025)

The wars in Ukraine and Israel have been shaped to a large extent by sustained attacks using missiles, rockets, and UAVs against civilian and military targets, illustrating the return of total warfare. This article examines why and how states confront aerial coercion and develops a three-layer analytical framework composed of active defense (interception), passive defense (early warning, shelters, and continuity-of-function mechanisms), and offensive defense (degrading the adversary’s strike capabilities at their source).

The authors argue that the degree of integration among these layers affects the resilience of the home front. This is demonstrated through a comparison between Ukraine—characterized by in bello adaptation under conditions of material scarcity—and Israel, where ante-bellum institutionalization enabled rapid, though at times uneven, adaptation following October 7.

Drawing on open-source intelligence (OSINT), policy documents, media reporting, and interviews with officials, professionals, and civil society actors, the study shows that variation in the integration of defensive layers shapes both the nature and performance of defense outcomes in each case. The findings contribute to academic debates on resilience and responses to coercion, as well as adaptation under air warfare, and provide an empirical foundation for planning integrated defense in other high-threat environments.